The Village of the Enchanted Forest
Forest Sustainable Development for Local Communities
Mushrooms
Wild Matsutake (left) and cultivated Shiitake (right)
Lac Saint-Jean area (province of Quebec, Canada)
Photos: Paul Vézina
WHAT IS A MUSHROOM
The word mushroom is derived from the Gallo-Roman mussiro which evolved to mussereroun in Middle English. Mushrooms have often been associated with the devil and witchcraft or to imaginary beings inhabiting forests, mainly because people were not able to understand what they were and how they lived. Perhaps the fact that some specimens have hallucinogenic properties (not to mention that some are fatal) contributed to those beliefs. It could also be that some species like the Mycena lux-coeli (Japan) or the Omphalotus nidiformis (Australia) glows in the dark because of its luciferin content (a chemical compound that characterizes the firefly).
A good brief definition of a mushroom is given on Dave Fisher's WEB site: "Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of certain fungi—the equivalent of the apple, not of the tree. Fungi, including those which produce mushrooms, are not plants; they are related to molds, mildews, rusts, smuts, and yeasts, and are classified in the Fungi Kingdom. The fungal organism which produces the mushrooms you encounter on your lawn or in the forest is called a mycelium. It is composed of hyphae, which are "chains" of fungal cells (singular: hypha). The mycelium itself is typically hidden in a substrate—within dead wood, for example, or in the soil. There, hidden, it secretes enzymes to digest organic matter, and the hyphal cells absorb nutrients through their cell walls. Depending on the species and the circumstances, the mycelium may be quite small, contained for example within the hull of a single black walnut; or it may be remarkably huge—some cover many acres of forest floor".
A BIT OF HISTORY
Mushrooms have had important historical uses on some occasions in the history of mankind. The killing of Roman Emperor Claudius II (54-10 B.C.), Pope Clement VI (1478-1534) and German emperor Charles VI (1685-1740) by ingestion of deadly amanites are certainly among the best-known facts giving fungi a negative connotation through history, but the discoveries of peniccilline and yeast had a completely opposite effect.
Mushroom consumption is strongly noted in East Asian countries for food and medicinal benefits many hundred years B.C. Edible fungi were considered as luxuries and "food of the gods" during antiquity and were consumed namely by nobles in Egypt, Greece and Rome. In the history of slavic countries like Russia, people had to hide in the forests for long periods of time because of threatening events, so they learned to use wild mushrooms as a handy food for their needs. Although not as well documented, there is some evidence that mushrooms have been part of food habits (or shamanic uses) many hundreds years ago in South African countries, India, Mexico and Guatemala. Cunsumption of mushrooms have also been noted in medieval Bagdad.
Commercial mushroom growing has been a much more recent phenomenon when the French began to grow field mushrooms in the 17th century on prepared horse manure in caves that provided the ideal stable environment in terms of temperature and humidity. In fact, the first authoritative article on mushroom production was written by a Frenchman, Monsieur Tourefort, in 1701". Today, there is almost a hundred species of mushrooms that can be cultivated, most of them being saprophytes. Over six million tonnes of edible mushrooms are produced commercially each year in over eighty countries around the world.
MUSHROOM AS FOOD
Table 1: Mushroom composition
| Water | 88,00% |
| Protein | 2,95% |
| Fat | 0,25% |
| Carbohydrate | 6,80% |
| Fiber | 1,00% |
| Minerals | 1,00% |
White mushroom is often taken as an example, but there is some variation in nutritional content between the different species, wich can be seen in table 2 for some 30 different wild edible fungi:
Table 2: Nutritional composition of some wild edible fungi
| | COMPOSITION, PERCENTAGE DRY WEIGHT | ||||
| BINOMIAL | COUNTRY | PROTEIN | CARBOHYDRATE | FAT | MINERAL MATTER (ASH) |
| Amanita caesarea | France? (1) | 15 | nk | 14 | 10 |
| Amanita loosii | Democratic Republic of the Congo (2) | 20 | nk | nk | nk |
| Amanita rubescens | Mexico (3) | 18 | nk | nk | nk |
| Boletus edulis | Turkey (7) | 38 | 47 | 9 | 1 |
| Boletus edulis | Finland (8) | 23 | nk | 2 | 7 |
| Boletus erythropus | Jordan (5) | 15 | 57 | 1 | 8 |
| Boletus frostii | Mexico (3) | 16 | nk | nk | nk |
| Boletus loyo | Chile (12) | 22 | 50 | 1 | 6 |
| Cantharellus cibarius | Turkey (6) | 21 | 62 | 5 | 2 |
| Cantharellus cibarius | Democratic Republic of the Congo (10) | 15 | 64 | 5 | 13 |
| Lactarius phlebophyllum | United Republic of Tanzania (7) | 30 | 51 | 9 | 5 |
| Lactarius deliciosus | France? (1) | 23 | nk | 7 | 6 |
| Lactarius deliciosus | Chile (4) | 27 | 28 | 7 | 6 |
| Lactarius indigo | Mexico (3) | 13 | nk | nk | nk |
| Lactarius torminosus | Finland (8) | 21 | nk | 2 | 7 |
| Lactarius piperatus | Turkey (6) | 27 | 65 | 2 | 1 |
| Ramaria flava | Mexico (3) | 14 | nk | nk | nk |
| Ramaria flava | Finland (8) | 24 | nk | 2 | 6 |
| Russula cyanoxantha | France? (1) | 17 | nk | 8 | 8 |
| Russula delica | India (9) | 17 | nk | nk | nk |
| Russula sp. | Democratic Republic of the Congo (10) | 29 | 55 | 6 | 6 |
| Suillus luteus | Chile (4) | 20 | 57 | 4 | 6 |
| Suillus granulatus | Chile (4) | 14 | 70 | 2 | 6 |
| Terfezia claveryi | Iraq (11) | 8 | 17 | nk | 10 |
| Termitomyces microcarpus 1 | United Republic of Tanzania (7) | 49 | 29 | 10 | 11 |
| Termitomyces microcarpus 2 | United Republic of Tanzania (7) | 35 | 37 | 6 | 23 |
| Termitomyces microcarpus | Democratic Republic of the Congo (10) | 33 | 38 | 5 | 14 |
| Tricholoma populinum | Canada (13) | 13 | 70 | 9 | 7 |
| Tricholoma saponaceum | France? (1) | 5 | nk | 7 | 8 |
| Tirmania nivea | Iraq (11) | 14 | 21 | nk | |
Source: F.A.O.
On the other hand, their protein content compares favourably with those of other food. To give a better insight, the two following tables (3 and 4) give standard measures of nutritional values of different food.
SPECIES | ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID INDEX | BIOLOGICAL VALUE | AMINO ACID SCORE | NUTRITIONAL INDEX |
| Agaricus bisporus * | 86.8 | 83.0 | 65.0 | 22.0 |
| Cantharellus cibarius | 94.2 | 91.0 | 68.0 | 3.31 |
| Macrolepiota procera | 98.7 | 95.9 | 90.0 | 7.4 |
| Suillus granulatus | 89.7 | 86.1 | 73.6 | 13.5 |
| Termitomyces spp. | 86.3 | 82.4 | – | 23.9 |
| World species | 87.6 | 83.8 | 61.6 | 16.0 |
Again, we can see that nutritional index can vary considerably from on species to the other.
Table 4: A general comparison of nutritional values of various foods compared to mushrooms
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID INDEX | M | AMINO ACID SCORE | M | NUTRITIONAL INDEX | M |
| 100 Pork, beef, chicken | 100 Pork | 59 Chicken | |||
| 99 Milk | 98 Beef, chicken | 43 Beef | |||
| 91 Potatoes, beans | 91 Milk | 35 Pork | |||
| 88 Maize | 63 Cabbage | 31 Soybeans | |||
| 86 Cucumbers | 59 Potatoes | 26 Spinach | |||
| 79 Groundnuts | 53 Groundnuts | 25 Milk | |||
| 76 Spinach, soybeans | 50 Maize | 21 Beans | |||
| 72 Cabbage | 46 Beans | 20 Groundnuts | |||
| 69 Turnips | 42 Cucumbers | 17 Cabbage | |||
| 53 Carrots | 33 Turnips | 14 Cucumbers | |||
| 44 Tomatoes | 31 Carrots | 11 Maize | |||
| 28 Spinach | 10 Turnips | ||||
| 23 Soybeans | 9 Potatoes | ||||
| 18 Tomatoes | 8 Tomatoes | ||||
| 6 Carrots |
If we bring special attention to the nutritional index, wich is equivalent to the amount of essential amino acids by total protein over 100, it is possible to see mushrooms can be a valuable and essential basic food, wich is the case in many developping countries namely at times when other food sources become scarce. Within their range of unique flavors, high protein value comparable to meat and important contribution to the supply of vitamins and minerals in the diet, mushrooms prove to be a valuable food source.
| Name | Image | Medicinal properties |
King Agaricus - Hymematsutake | MushroomExpert.com | This mushroom produces 1-3 and 1-6 D-fractions of beta glucans, polysaccharides currently under investigation for immunopotentiation. The literature reports beta glucan levels up to 14%. (A recent analysis of the author's Himematsutake showed 9% beta glucans). Its unique polysaccharides promote natural killer cells that are selectively cytotoxic on tumor cells. This mushroom has been the subject of numerous analyses for isolating constituants, both tumoricidal and immunomodulatory, for the treatment of cancers. The cultured mycelium also produces anti-tumour compounds. That this mushroom produces compounds specifically increasing apoptosis in cancerous cells (but not in healthy cells) and also triggers an immune response, is notable. A yellowish metabolite exuded by the mycelium apparantly has bactericidal properties. A contradiction not yet reconciled at the time of this writing is a report that specimens of A. blazei from Brazil contained 1,000-3,200 mg/kg (.10-.32%) agaritines. In comparison, another almond flavored Agaricus, Agaricus augustus, has up to 2.2% agaritins content, while Button mushrooms have up to .87%. - Stamet |
| Portobello (Agaricus brunnescens) (=A. bisporus) | Wikipedia | Although the button mushroom is the foremost cultivated edible mushroom in the world with thousands of tonnes being eaten every year, it is often thought of as a poor relation to its more exotic and expensive cousins and to have lesser value nutritionally. But according to new research in SCI's Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, the white button mushroom has as much anti-oxidant properties as its more expensive rivals, the maitake and the matsutake mushrooms - both of which are highly prized in Japanese cuisine for their reputed health properties including lowering blood pressure and their alleged ability to fight cancer. Anti-oxidants are believed to help ward off illness and boost the body's immune system by acting as free radical scavengers, helping to mop up cell damage caused by free radicals. Dr Jean-Michel Savoie and his team from the Institut National de la Recherche Agrinomique, a Governmental research institute in France, found that anti-radical activity was equivalent to, if not more, than the better known mushrooms when they measured the respective mushrooms' free radical scavenging ability. The French team also found that the body of the mushroom had a higher concentration of anti-oxidants than the stalk. Dr Jean-Michel said: "It can be reasonably assumed that white button mushrooms have as much, if not more, radical scavenging power as mushrooms currently touted for their health benefit. The good thing is button mushrooms are available all year round, are cheap and may be an excellent source of nutrition as part of a healthy diet." |
| Black Poplar Mushroom (Agrocybe aegerita (Brigantini) Singer) | Wikipedia | None known, although closely related species produce unique antibiotics. - Stamet |
| Shaggy Mane (Coprinus comatus (Muller: Fries) S. F. Gray) | MykoWEB.com | A novel antibiotic has been isolated from this species and is currently being characterized by American researchers. Ying reports that the "inhibition rates against sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich carcinoma are 100% and 90% respectively". This author knows no other research on antitumor properties of this mushroom. - Stamet |
| Velvet Foot Collybia - Enokitake (Flammulina velutipes (Curtis ex Fries) Singer) | The water-soluble polysaccharide flammulin, is 80-100% effective against Sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich carcinoma according to Ying. An epidemiological study in Japan found a community of Enoki growers near the city of Nagano that had unusually low cancer rates. Frequent Enoki consumption was thought to be the cause. Ikekawa et al. reported anticancer activity from extracts of this mushroom. Zeng et al. and Quintian et al. have published studies of the antitumor properties of this mushroom. The polysaccharide thought to be active is commonly referred to as FVP for "Flammulina velutipes polysaccharide". - Stamet | |
| Brown-Gilled Woodlover (Hypholoma capnoides (Fries) Quelet) | Given this species' woodland habitat and success in combating competitors, I think H. capnoides should be carefully examined for its antibacterial and medicinal properties. - Stamet | |
| Brick top - Kuritake (Hypholoma sublateritium (Fries) Quelet) | Like H. capnoides, this mushroom is worthy of investigation for its potential medicinal properties. The only reference I have found is a short note on Icons of Medicinal Fungi, wich states that the inhibition rates of Hypholoma sublateritium (Fr.) Quel. against sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich carcinoma (sic) is 60% and 70% respectively (Ying). The reference supporting this claim is in Chinese and lacks further elaboration. - Stamet | |
| Beech Mushroom - Buna-shimeji (Hypsizygus tessalatus (Bulliard: Fries) Singer) | An unpublished report from the National Cancer Institute of Japan showed strong anti-tumor activity. Mice were implanted with Lewis Lung carcinoma and given aqueous extracts of the fresh mushrooms. At a dose equivalent to 1 gram/kilogram of body weight per day, tumors were 100% inhibited, resulting in totalregression of the tumors. Control groups confirmed that, in absence of the mushroom extract, tumors were uninhibited in their growth. No studies with human subjects have been reported. - Stamet | |
| White Elm Mushroom - Shirotamogitake (Hypsizygus ulmarius (Bulliard: Fries) Redhead) |
| I know of no publishedstudies on the medicinal properties of Hypsizygus ulmarius. Anecdotal reports, unpublished, suggest this mushroom is highly anticarcinogenic. Much of the research has been done in Japan. Mushrooms in this group, from the viewpoint of traditional Chinese medicine, are recommended for treating stomach and intestinal diseases. - Stamet |
| Shiitake (Lentinula edodes (Berkeley) Pegler) | Shiitake mushrooms have been researched for their medicinal benefits, most notably their anti-tumor properties in laboratory mice. These studies have also identified the polysaccharide lentinan, a (1-3) β-D-glucan, as the active compound responsible for the anti-tumor effects. Extracts from shiitake mushrooms have also been researched for many other immunological benefits, ranging from anti-viral properties to possible treatments for severe allergies, as well as arthritis. Lenthionine, a key flavour compound of shiitake, also inhibits platelet aggregation, so it is a promising treatment for thrombosis. Shiitake are also one of a few known natural sources of vegan and kosher vitamin D (vitamin D2). A patented chemical derived from shiitake is reputed to reverse cellular aging and is sold as a moisturizer by the company Aveeno. | |
| Nameko Mushroom (Pholiota nameko (T. Ito) S. Ito et Imai in Imai) | Mushroom Collection Circle | According to Ying, water and sodium hydroxide extracts of this mushroom are 60% and 90% effective, respectively, against sarcoma 180 implanted in white mice. Furthermore, resistance to infection by Staphylococcus bacteria is substantially improved. This author knows of no parallel studies by Western researchers. The references making these medical claims are in Chinese. - Stamet |
| Tree oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacquin ex Fries) Kummer) | Pleurotus species possess a number of beneficial medicinal properties, such as antitumour, immunomodulatory, antigenotoxic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, hypocholesterolaemic, antihypertensive, antihyperglycaemic, antimicrobial and antiviral activities. These activities have been reported for various extracts and isolated compounds, such as polysaccharides, polysaccharide-protein complexes, proteoglycans, proteins and DNA from oyster mushroom fermentation broth, mycelia or fruiting bodies. In particular, polysaccharides appear to be potent antitumour and immunomodulating substances, besides possessing other beneficial activities. However, the biochemical mechanisms of these therapeutic activities still remain largely unknown. | |
| King Stropharia (Stropharia rugosoannulata Farlow apud Murrill) | Not known to this author. - Stamet | |
| Paddy Straw Mushroom (Volvariella volvacea (Bulliard: Fries) Singer) | natur-um-triberg.de | None known to this author. - Stamet |
| Reishi - Lingzhi (Ganoderma lucidum (Wm. Curtis:Fries) Karsten) | Wikipedia | Lingzhi may possess some anti-tumor, immunomodulatory and immunotherapeutic activities, supported by some studies on polysaccharides, terpenes, and other bioactive compounds isolated from fruiting bodies and mycelia of this fungus (reviewed by R. R. Paterson[5]). However, the efficacy of these compounds in the treatment of cancer has not yet been shown in clinical trials.[6] Moreover, as with any herb, variation between preparations and potential negative side effects cannot be ruled out. It is understood as adaptogenic, anti-allergenic and anti-hypertensive due to the presence of triterpenes. Apart from these properties, lingzhi has been found to be anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anti-parasitic, anti-fungal, antidiabetic, anti-hypotensive, and protective of the liver. It has also been found to inhibit platelet aggregation, and to lower blood pressure, cholesterol and blood sugar. Because of these properties, lingzhi has been regarded as blood pressure stabilizer, antioxidant, analgesic, a kidney and nerve tonic. It has been used in bronchitis prevention and in cardiovascular treatment, and in the treatment of high triglycerides, high blood pressure, hepatitis, allergies, chemotherapy support, HIV support, and even for fatigue and altitude sickness. Some peer-reviewed studies indicate that ganoderic acid has some protective effects against liver injury by viruses and other toxic agents in mice, suggesting a potential benefit of this compound in the treatment of liver diseases in humans. Although the experiences in fighting cancer are more inconsistent, the extract has been claimed to be effective in regressing tumors. The results depend on the type of cancer and the severity of the condition. It is usually recommended that it be used in combination with other prescribed medical treatments and as part of a fu zheng formula with a variety of supporting herbs. The Ganoderma extract has been employed to help substantially reduce or eliminate the side-effects of radio- and chemotherapies if it is taken before, during and after the treatments. It has been found clinically to reduce side-effects like hair loss, nausea, vomiting, stomatitis, sore throat, loss of appetite and insomnia. |
| Hen-of-the-Woods - Maitake (Grifola frondosa (Dicks: Fr.) S. F. Gray) | The underground tubers from which hen of the woods arises has been used in traditional Chinese and Japanese medicine to enhance the immune system. Researchers have also indicated that whole maitake has the ability to regulate blood pressure, glucose, insulin, and both serum and liver lipids, such as cholesterol, triglycerides, and phospholipids, and may also be useful for weight loss. Maitake is rich in minerals (such as potassium, calcium, and magnesium), various vitamins (B2, D2 and Niacin), fibers and amino acids. The active constituent in maitake for enhancing the immune actively has been identified in the late 1980s to be the protein-bound polysaccharide compound, beta-glucan, an ingredient found especially in the family of polyporaceae. | |
| Umbrella Polypore - Zhu Ling (Polyporus umbellatus Fries) | MushroomExpert.com | Agaric (Zhu Ling) is the dry sclerotium of Polyporus umbellatus (Pers.) Fries (Polyporaceae). Although it has a long history of use as a medicine in China—more than 2,500 years—it has not been cultivated yet. In Jilin Province, it is collected in forests at elevations 1,200 ~ 2,200 m. Agaric’s main compounds are ergosterol, a-hydroxy-tetracosanoic acid, biotin, and polysaccharides (Li and Huang 1994). The phamacological activities include: (1) inhibiting sarcoma180 and hepatic carcinoma in mice (polysaccharide); (2) enhancing macrophage phagocytosis and lymphocyte-blastogenesis rate; (3) acting as a diuretic. It is used for edema, dysuria, leukorrhea, jaundice, stranguria, urinary stone, and chronic hepati-tis. Injections of agaric polysaccharides are used together with chemotherapy and radio-therapy for cancers of the lung, liver, and acute leukemia. |
| Turkey Tail - Yun Zhi (Trametes versicolor (L: Fr.) Pilat) | Trametes (=Coriolus) versicolor (L.:Fr.) Pilát, is a small, flexible polypore fungus that is an important part of the forest ecology as a recycler of dead and dying trees in forests throughout the world. Of all the mushrooms used today for their medicinal qualities, more research has been performed on this species than any other, including shiitake (Lentinus edodes), or reishi (Ganoderma lucidum). High-molecular-weight fractions from the mycelium have been studied in human clinical trials, especially polysaccharide Krestin (PSK), which is an approved drug paid for by national health care in Japan. PSK is given orally (often 3 grams/day), along with several chemotherapy protocols. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies show enhancement of immune functions, antiviral effects, and cholesterol-regulating effects, among others. New clinical trials demonstrate improved quality of life after surgery and in combination with chemotherapy, as well as extended 5- and 10-year survival rates, especially for patients with colorectal and stomach cancers. Further studies are needed in order to clarify the most effective forms of the whole fruiting body extracts, mycelium extracts, and their high-molecular weight fractions, along with the optimum dose. Safety issues, while not completely determined for long-term treatment, during pregnancy, or in combination with pharmaceutical drugs, seem to be of low concern, with no noted published side effects or interactions with drugs reported. | |
| Lion's Mane Mushroom (Hericium erinaceus (Bulliard: Fries) Persoon) | This mushroom has been used medicinally for hundreds of years in China, and recent studies have shown that several components have biological activity that include antioxidant effect, the regulation of blood lipid levels and reduction of blood glucose levels. Ying reports that pills of this mushroom are used in the treatment of gastric and esophageal carcinoma. | |
| Wood ears (Auricularia polytricha (Montagne) Saccardo) | Auricularia polytricha is variously called "wood ear," "tree ear," "black fungus," or "muk nge". The dried ear-shaped cap is medium sized, dull in texture, and dark brown to black. The wavy lower surface has a contrasting powdery gray color. The stem is absent or rudimentary. It has no gills. It is a native of Asia and some Pacific Ocean islands in humid climates. Most major Asian countries successfully cultivate A. polytricha today. - MykoWEB | |
| White Jelly Mushroom (Tremella fuciformis Berk) | In traditional Chinese medicine, tremella is associated with the Lung and Stomach meridians, and has sweet and neutral properties. In China, tremella has been used to treat conditions such as coughs and heart palpitations. Tremella also helps stimulate the immune system, can lower blood cholesterol levels, and has been shown to have antitumor properties, which has led to its use in the treatment of some forms of cancer. In addition to its medicinal uses, tremella is often taken by women to help improve the condition of their skin. It is considered a vital beauty supplement, and helps the skin to become soft and pliable. | |
| Cauliflower Mushroom (Sparassis crispa Wulf ex Fries) | Not known. I would not be surprised if this mushroom contained potent polysaccharides and novel antibiotics. Its ability to grow to a prodigious size and its residence in old-growth forests make it a prime candidate for novel constituents. - Stamet | |
| Morels (Morchella sp.) | Wikipedia | Not known to this author. - Stamet |
Bioluminescence:
Growing Shiitake Mushrooms in an Agroforestry Practice (University of Missouri)
Farming Exotic Mushrooms in the Forest (USDA)
Growing Mushrooms on logs - Woodlot Style (Ontario Woodlot Association)
Producing Shiitake Mushrooms: A Guide for Small-scale Outdoor Cultivation on Logs (North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service)
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